Table 1 Characteristics of parenting programs, theoretical underpinnings, core functions, and example forms. Functions for each program were extracted from: All Children in Focus [38, 39] Comet [40], Connect [41], Cope [42], and Triple P [43]
From: Fidelity-consistency and deliberateness of modifications in parenting programs
Programs | Target age group | No. of sessions | Session duration (hours) | Theory | Goals or aims of the programs (i.e., functions) | Example of activities (i.e., forms) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All Children in Focus | 3–12 | 4 | 2.5 | Behavior analysis Social learning theory | • Increase positive attention and warmth • Provide positive feedback and reinforcement of positive behaviors • Increase understanding of what maintains child behavior • Reduce harsh parenting • Increase consistent parenting • Reduce unnecessary conflicts • Increase conflict management skills | Didactive teaching (e.g., parents as role models, child-directed play) Video illustrations (e.g., how to give positive attention, stressful morning routines) Group work (e.g., practice analyzing behaviors, how to deal with challenging situations) |
Comet | 3–12 | 11 | 2.5 | Behavior analysis Social learning theory | • Increase positive attention and warmth • Strengthen parents’ ability to recognize and encourage positive behaviors • Set limits and consistent parenting • Reduce unnecessary conflicts • Teach collaborative problem-solving • Increase appropriate supervision | Didactive teaching (e.g., attention as reinforcement, how to validate emotions) Video illustrations (e.g., how to give positive feedback, children imitate their parents) Role-plays (e.g., task shifting, deescalate conflicts) |
Connect | 8–18 | 9 | 1.5 | Attachment theory Systemic theory Relational theories | • Reduce parents’ feelings of distress • Develop reflective capacity and awareness of attachment • Increase parents’ capacity to provide a safe haven and secure base • Strengthen the parent-teen bond and protect from adversity | Didactive teaching (e.g., what is attachment, balance attachment, and autonomy) Illustrative role-plays by group leaders (e.g., responsive and nonresponsive ways of interacting) Reflection exercises (e.g., needs through the life span, what gets us stuck in negative relationship patterns) |
Cope | 3–12 and 12–18 | 7 and 10 | 2 | Social learning theory Social-cognitive psychology Family systems theory Theories of Group Processes | • Increase supportive communication • Encourage positive behavior • Improve family relationships • Avoid conflicts • Manage transitions • Negotiate and solve problems | Didactive teaching (e.g., how to improve connection, distinguish small and big problems) Video illustrations (e.g., common parenting mistakes, collaborative planning) Group discussions (e.g., recognize problematic interaction patterns, how to stay calm as a parent) |
Triple P | 0–5 | 4a | 2 | Child and family behavior therapy Behavior analysis | • Ensure a safe and engaging environment • Create a positive learning environment • Teach assertive discipline • Encourage realistic expectations • Promote parents’ self-care | Didactive teaching (e.g., causes of behavior, how to encourage positive behavior) Group discussions (e.g., defining positive parenting, how to be a good role model) Role plays (e.g., task switching, support skill development) |